CSS EXAMINATION-2018-GENDER STUDIES

TIME ALLOWED: THREE HOURS PART-I(MCQS): MAXIMUM 30 MINUTES

PART-I (MCQS)         MAXIMUM MARKS = 20 PART-II                                   MAXIMUM MARKS = 80

A. This is a complex question that requires a comprehensive answer. Here is a possible response:

Introduction

Gender Studies and Women’s Studies are two related but distinct academic fields that emerged from the feminist movements and social justice struggles of the 20th century. Both fields aim to critically examine the roles, experiences, and representations of different genders in various social, cultural, historical, and political contexts. However, they differ in their scope, focus, and perspectives on gender as a category of analysis and a source of oppression and empowerment.

Differences between Gender Studies and Women’s Studies

Gender Studies

• Gender Studies is a broader field that explores the diversity and complexity of gender identities and expressions, beyond the binary of male and female.
• Gender Studies also analyzes how gender intersects with other factors, such as sexuality, race, class, ethnicity, religion, disability, and age, to shape the lives and opportunities of individuals and groups in society.
• Gender Studies challenges the naturalization and normalization of gender roles and stereotypes, and exposes the power structures and inequalities that are based on or reinforced by gender differences and hierarchies.
• Gender Studies draws on various disciplines and theoretical frameworks, such as sociology, psychology, anthropology, history, literature, media, queer theory, postcolonial theory, and critical race theory, to understand and critique the construction and performance of gender across time and space.

Women’s Studies

• Women’s Studies is a more specific and focused field that centers on women and their experiences, contributions and struggles in a patriarchal and male-dominated society.
• Women’s Studies highlights the diversity and agency of women and challenges the marginalization and oppression of women in various domains, such as politics, economy, education, health, culture, and religion.
• Women’s Studies advocates for women’s rights and empowerment and promotes feminist values and visions of social change and justice.
• Women’s Studies uses various feminist theories and methodologies, such as liberal feminism, radical feminism, socialist feminism, black feminism, ecofeminism, and intersectional feminism, to analyze and transform the conditions and relations of women in society.

Examples of Gender Studies and Women’s Studies

• An example of a Gender Studies topic is the representation and impact of transgender and non-binary people in media and popular culture, such as the TV show Transparent or the singer Sam Smith.
• An example of a Women’s Studies topic is the history and impact of the women’s suffrage movement in different countries, such as the UK, the US, or Pakistan.
• An example of a topic that can be studied from both Gender Studies and Women’s Studies perspectives is the phenomenon of sexual violence and harassment, such as the MeToo movement or the rape culture.

Current status of Women’s Studies in Pakistan

• Women’s Studies in Pakistan is a relatively young and emerging field that faces many challenges and opportunities in the context of a conservative and patriarchal society.
• Women’s Studies in Pakistan was initiated in the 1980s by the Women’s Division of the government, which established several centers of Women’s Studies in some universities, such as Quaid-i-Azam University, University of Karachi, and University of Punjab¹².
• Women’s Studies in Pakistan has developed a curriculum and research agenda that addresses the issues and needs of Pakistani women, such as education, health, employment, violence, law, religion, and culture¹².
• Women’s Studies in Pakistan has also contributed to the advocacy and activism of women’s rights and empowerment, and has collaborated with various civil society organizations, such as the Aurat Foundation, Shirkat Gah, and the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan¹².
• Women’s Studies in Pakistan faces many obstacles and resistance from the dominant social and religious norms and institutions, which often view it as a Western or anti-Islamic influence that threatens the traditional values and roles of women³².
• Women’s Studies in Pakistan also suffers from a lack of resources, recognition, and support from the academic and political authorities, which often marginalize or neglect it as a minor or irrelevant field³².

Summary

• Gender Studies and Women’s Studies are two different but related fields that study gender as a social and cultural phenomenon that affects the lives and opportunities of individuals and groups in society.
• Gender Studies is a broader field that explores the diversity and complexity of gender identities and expressions, and how they intersect with other factors, such as sexuality, race, class, and ethnicity.
• Women’s Studies is a more specific and focused field that centers on women and their experiences, contributions and struggles in a patriarchal and male-dominated society and advocates for women’s rights and empowerment.
• Women’s Studies in Pakistan is a relatively young and emerging field that faces many challenges and opportunities in the context of a conservative and patriarchal society and has developed a curriculum and research agenda that addresses the issues and needs of Pakistani women.

A. This is a complex question that requires a comprehensive answer. Here is a possible response:

Introduction

Sex and gender are two related but distinct concepts that are often used interchangeably in everyday language, but have different meanings and implications in feminist philosophy and social sciences. Sex refers to the biological and physiological characteristics that define humans as male or female, such as chromosomes, hormones, genitals, and reproductive organs. Gender refers to the social and cultural attributes and expectations that are associated with being male or female, such as roles, behaviors, expressions, and identities. The sex versus gender debate is a longstanding and ongoing discussion that examines the origins, nature, and consequences of sex and gender differences and inequalities in society.

Nature versus Nurture Argument

The nature versus nurture argument is a central issue in the sex versus gender debate, as it explores the extent to which sex and gender are determined by biological factors (nature) or by social and environmental factors (nurture). There are two main perspectives on this argument: the essentialist perspective and the constructivist perspective.

Essentialist Perspective

• The essentialist perspective argues that sex and gender are innate and immutable and that they are determined by natural and biological factors, such as genes, hormones, and brain structures.
• The essentialist perspective claims that sex and gender are closely aligned and that there is a natural and causal link between one’s sex and one’s gender. For example, being born with a male sex implies having a masculine gender, and vice versa.
• The essentialist perspective also asserts that sex and gender differences are universal and natural and that they explain and justify the different roles, abilities, and preferences of men and women in society. For example, men are naturally more aggressive, rational, and dominant, while women are naturally more nurturing, emotional, and submissive.

Constructivist Perspective

• The constructivist perspective argues that sex and gender are fluid and variable and that they are determined by social and cultural factors, such as norms, values, and institutions.
• The constructivist perspective challenges the alignment and causality between sex and gender and recognizes the diversity and complexity of gender identities and expressions, beyond the binary of male and female. For example, being born with a male sex does not necessarily imply having a masculine gender, and vice versa.
• The constructivist perspective also exposes the power structures and inequalities that are based on or reinforced by sex and gender differences, and advocates for the transformation and liberation of gender relations and roles in society. For example, men and women are not naturally different but are socially constructed and oppressed by the patriarchal and heteronormative system.

Examples of the Sex versus Gender Debate

• An example of the sex versus gender debate is the controversy over the participation and performance of female athletes in sports, especially with testosterone levels, muscle mass, and physical strength.
• An example of the sex versus gender debate is the recognition and rights of transgender and non-binary people, especially to their legal status, medical access, and social acceptance.
• An example of the sex versus gender debate is the impact and implications of gender stereotypes and biases in various domains, such as education, employment, health, and politics.

Summary

• Sex and gender are two different but related concepts that refer to the biological and physiological characteristics and the social and cultural attributes of being male or female, respectively.
• The sex versus gender debate is a discussion that examines the origins, nature, and consequences of sex and gender differences and inequalities in society.
• The nature versus nurture argument is a central issue in the sex versus gender debate, as it explores the extent to which sex and gender are determined by biological factors (nature) or by social and environmental factors (nurture).
• The two main perspectives on the nature versus nurture argument are the essentialist perspective and the constructivist perspective, which have different views and implications on the relationship, diversity, and transformation of sex and gender.

A. There is no definitive answer to this question, as different types of feminism may have different goals, strategies, and challenges in the context of Pakistan. However, some possible types of feminism that can elevate the status of women in Pakistan are:

• Islamic feminism: This type of feminism seeks to reinterpret and reform Islamic teachings and practices from a feminist perspective, and to challenge the patriarchal and misogynist interpretations of Islam that are often used to justify the oppression and discrimination of women in Pakistan. Islamic feminism also aims to highlight the rights and roles of women in Islam, and to promote a more egalitarian and inclusive vision of Islamic society. Some examples of Islamic feminists in Pakistan are Riffat Hassan, Amina Wadud, and Asma Barlas¹².
• Intersectional feminism: This type of feminism recognizes the diversity and complexity of women’s experiences and identities, and how they are shaped by the intersections of various factors, such as class, caste, ethnicity, religion, sexuality, and disability. Intersectional feminism also exposes the multiple and overlapping forms of oppression and marginalization that women face in Pakistan, and advocates for the inclusion and empowerment of all women, especially those who are most vulnerable and disadvantaged. Some examples of intersectional feminists in Pakistan are Farida Shaheed, Shahnaz Rouse, and Nighat Said Khan³.
• Ecofeminism: This type of feminism links the exploitation and degradation of nature with the oppression and domination of women, and argues that both are rooted in the same patriarchal and capitalist system that values profit over life. Ecofeminism also proposes alternative ways of living and relating that are more harmonious and respectful of the environment and of women, and that challenge the destructive and unsustainable practices that threaten the survival and well-being of both. Some examples of ecofeminists in Pakistan are Bina Agarwal, Vandana Shiva, and Khawar Mumtaz³.

          Islamic feminism is a type of feminism that seeks to reinterpret and reform Islamic teachings and practices from a feminist perspective, and to challenge the patriarchal and misogynist interpretations of Islam that are often used to justify the oppression and discrimination of women in Pakistan¹. However, implementing Islamic feminism in Pakistan faces some challenges, such as:

• Resistance from conservative and extremist groups: Islamic feminism is often met with hostility and backlash from various religious and political groups that view it as a threat to their authority and interests and as a deviation from the true and authentic Islam. These groups may use violence, intimidation, propaganda, and blasphemy accusations to silence and discredit Islamic feminists and their supporters²³.
• Lack of institutional and legal support: Islamic feminism is also hampered by the lack of recognition and support from the state and the legal system, which are often influenced by the dominant and orthodox interpretations of Islam. Islamic feminists may face difficulties in accessing education, health, employment, and justice, and in influencing the policies and laws that affect their rights and well-being³⁴.
• Diversity and complexity of women’s experiences and identities: Islamic feminism also has to deal with the diversity and complexity of women’s experiences and identities in Pakistan, which are shaped by various factors, such as class, caste, ethnicity, region, and sect. Islamic feminism has to be inclusive and responsive to the different needs and concerns of women from different backgrounds and situations, and to avoid imposing a monolithic or homogenous view of Islam and feminism³ .

Summary

• Different types of feminism can elevate the status of women in Pakistan, such as Islamic feminism, intersectional feminism, and ecofeminism. These types of feminism seek to reinterpret and reform Islamic teachings and practices from a feminist perspective, recognize the diversity and complexity of women’s experiences and identities, and link the exploitation and degradation of nature with the oppression and domination of women.
• Islamic feminism faces some challenges in Pakistan, such as resistance from conservative and extremist groups, lack of institutional and legal support, and diversity and complexity of women’s experiences and identities. These challenges make it difficult for Islamic feminists to access their rights and well-being, and to influence the policies and laws that affect them.

A. Introduction

Pakistan is ranked as the second-worst country in the world for gender inequality, according to the Global Gender Gap Index 2022¹. This means that Pakistan has a large gap between men and women in terms of economic participation and opportunity, educational attainment, health and survival, and political empowerment. This is despite Pakistan’s commitment to many international conventions and treaties on gender equality and women’s rights, such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, the Beijing Platform for Action, and the Sustainable Development Goals²³. Moreover, Pakistan’s 1973 constitution also guarantees gender equality and prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex alone⁴⁵.

Reasons for Gender Inequality in Pakistan

There are many reasons for the persistence and prevalence of gender inequality in Pakistan, which can be categorized into four main areas: social, cultural, economic, and political.

Social Reasons

• Pakistan has a patriarchal and conservative society, where women are often viewed as subordinate and dependent on men, and where men are considered as the dominant and authoritative figures in the family and the society⁶⁷.
• Pakistan has a high prevalence of violence against women and girls, such as domestic abuse, honor killings, acid attacks, rape, sexual harassment, and child marriage, which violate their human rights and dignity, and limit their freedom and mobility⁶⁷.
• Pakistan has a low literacy rate and a high dropout rate for women and girls, especially in rural areas, due to factors such as poverty, lack of access and quality of education, early marriage and pregnancy, and social and cultural norms that discourage female education⁶⁷⁸.

Cultural Reasons

• Pakistan has a diverse and complex culture, where different ethnic, religious, and sectarian groups have their own traditions, values, and practices, some of which are discriminatory and oppressive towards women and girls⁶⁷.
• Pakistan has a strong influence of religion, especially Islam, on its laws, policies, and social norms, which are often interpreted and implemented in a rigid and conservative manner, and which are sometimes used to justify and legitimize the subordination and marginalization of women and girls⁶⁷.
• Pakistan has a deep-rooted system of patriarchy, feudalism, and tribalism, which reinforce the gender roles and stereotypes, and which create power structures and inequalities that favor men over women in all spheres of life⁶⁷.

Economic Reasons

• Pakistan has a low level of economic participation and opportunity for women, especially in the formal sector, due to factors such as lack of skills, education, and training, discrimination and harassment in the workplace, and unequal pay and benefits⁶⁷⁸.
• Pakistan has a high level of poverty and unemployment among women, especially in rural areas, due to factors such as lack of access and control over resources, assets, and services, and lack of social protection and safety nets⁶⁷⁸.
• Pakistan has a high burden of unpaid and domestic work on women, especially in the informal sector, due to factors such as the division of labor, the care economy, and the reproductive roles of women, which are often undervalued and unrecognized⁶⁷⁸.

Political Reasons

• Pakistan has a low level of political empowerment and representation for women, especially in the decision-making and leadership positions, due to factors such as lack of political awareness, education, and participation, discrimination and intimidation in the political arena, and underutilization of the quota system and the reserved seats for women⁶⁷⁸.
• Pakistan has a weak and inconsistent implementation and enforcement of the laws, policies, and mechanisms that are meant to protect and promote the rights and interests of women, due to factors such as lack of political will, commitment, and accountability, corruption and nepotism, and interference and influence of the religious and traditional authorities⁶⁷⁸.
• Pakistan has a limited and ineffective monitoring and evaluation of the progress and challenges of gender equality and women’s empowerment, due to factors such as lack of data, information, and analysis, lack of coordination and collaboration among the stakeholders, and lack of feedback and feedback mechanisms⁶⁷⁸.

Summary

• The question was about the reasons for ranking Pakistan as the second-worst country in the world for gender inequality, despite its commitment to many international conventions and its constitution on gender equality.
• The answer explained that there are many social, cultural, economic, and political reasons for the persistence and prevalence of gender inequality in Pakistan, which affects the lives and opportunities of women and girls in various aspects, such as health, education, employment, and political participation.
• The answer also provided some examples of the factors that contribute to the gender gap in Pakistan, such as violence, discrimination, poverty, religion, patriarchy, and weak governance.

A. Globalization is the process of increasing integration and interdependence of the world in terms of trade, investment, communication, culture, and politics. Globalization has had both positive and negative impacts on the lives of women in developing nations, including Pakistan. Here are some of the impacts of the global political economy on Pakistani women:

• Positive impacts:
  • Globalization has created new opportunities and challenges for women in terms of education, employment, entrepreneurship, and empowerment. Women have gained access to more information, skills, markets, and resources, and have contributed to the economic growth and development of their country¹².
  • Globalization has also exposed women to different ideas, values, and practices, and has encouraged them to challenge the traditional and patriarchal norms and structures that limit their rights and freedoms. Women have also benefited from the support and solidarity of various international and local organizations that advocate for gender equality and women’s rights¹².
  • Globalization has also increased the awareness and recognition of the diversity and complexity of women’s experiences and identities and has highlighted the intersections of gender with other factors, such as class, caste, ethnicity, religion, and region. Women have also expressed their agency and voice in various social, cultural, and political domains¹².
• Negative impacts:
  • Globalization has also increased the vulnerability and exploitation of women, especially in the informal and unregulated sectors, such as agriculture, domestic work, and sex work. Women face low wages, poor working conditions, discrimination, harassment, and violence, and have limited access to social protection and legal recourse¹²³.
  • Globalization has also intensified the inequalities and conflicts between men and women, and among different groups of women, based on their economic, social, and cultural status. Women also face resistance and backlash from the conservative and extremist forces that view globalization as a threat to their authority and interests, and as a deviation from the authentic and traditional values and roles of women¹²³.
  • Globalization has also created new pressures and expectations for women, who have to balance their multiple and conflicting roles and responsibilities, both in the public and private spheres. Women also face the risks and costs of migration, displacement, and environmental degradation, which affect their health and well-being¹²³.

Summary

• Globalization has had both positive and negative impacts on Pakistani women, in terms of their economic, social, cultural, and political opportunities and challenges.
• The answer also provided some examples of the factors that influence the impacts of globalization on Pakistani women, such as education, employment, empowerment, violence, inequality, and diversity.

A. I think that having an equal number of women in all spheres of public domain, especially in politics, is desirable and beneficial for several reasons:

• It is a matter of justice and human rights, as women constitute half of the population and should have equal access and opportunity to participate in the decision-making and governance of their society¹².
• It is a matter of democracy and representation, as women can bring diverse and valuable experiences, perspectives, and voices to the public domain, and can better reflect and respond to the needs and interests of their constituents, especially women and girls¹².
• It is a matter of development and peace, as women can contribute to the economic, social, and cultural progress and well-being of their society, and can play a positive and constructive role in the prevention and resolution of conflicts and violence¹².

However, I also recognize that having an equal number of women in all spheres of public domain, especially in politics, is not easy and simple, as some many barriers and challenges prevent and limit women’s participation and leadership, such as:

• Social and cultural norms and stereotypes that view women as inferior and subordinate to men, and that assign them to the domestic and reproductive roles, while excluding them from the public and productive roles³⁴⁵.
• Violence and discrimination against women in the public domain, such as harassment, intimidation, threats, and attacks, which violate their rights and dignity, and deter them from engaging in political and civic activities³⁴⁵.
• Lack of resources and support for women in the public domain, such as education, training, mentoring, networking, funding, and media, which hinder their skills, confidence, and visibility, and reduce their chances of success and recognition³⁴⁵.

Therefore, I think that having equal number of women in all spheres of public domain, especially in politics, requires not only numerical parity, but also substantive equality, which means that women have equal power, influence, and respect as men, and that their rights and interests are protected and promoted in the public domain¹². This requires a comprehensive and holistic approach that addresses the structural and systemic causes of gender inequality, and that involves the collaboration and commitment of all stakeholders, such as the state, the civil society, the media, the religious and traditional authorities, and the men and women themselves³⁴⁵.

summary:

• The question was about the need for an equal number of women in all spheres of public domain, especially in politics, based on the statement that “women cover half the sky”.
• The answer explained that having an equal number of women in the public domain is desirable and beneficial for justice, democracy, development, and peace, as women can bring diverse and valuable experiences, perspectives, and voices to society.
• The answer also recognized that having an equal number of women in the public domain is not easy and simple, as many barriers and challenges prevent and limit women’s participation and leadership, such as social and cultural norms, violence and discrimination, lack of resources and support, and weak governance.
• The answer also suggested that having an equal number of women in the public domain requires not only numerical parity, but also substantive equality, which means that women have equal power, influence, and respect as men and that their rights and interests are protected and promoted in the public domain. This requires a comprehensive and holistic approach that addresses the structural and systemic causes of gender inequality, and that involves the collaboration and commitment of all stakeholders.

(a)            ‘Gender Strategic Needs’ and ‘Gender Practical Needs’

(b)           APWA and WAF

(c)            Government Initiative for combating the menace of violence against women

A .(a) ‘Gender Strategic Needs’ and ‘Gender Practical Needs’ are two types of needs that women and men have to their gender roles and status in society. Gender Strategic Needs are the needs that aim to improve the position or status of women and men, and to challenge the existing gender inequalities and power structures. For example, women’s strategic needs may include legal rights, political participation, and decision-making power. Gender Practical Needs are the needs that arise from the actual conditions that women and men experience because of their gender roles, and that do not challenge the existing gender relations. For example, women’s practical needs may include access to water, health, education, and income¹.

(b) APWA and WAF are two women’s organizations in Pakistan that have been active in promoting women’s rights and empowerment. APWA stands for All Pakistan Women’s Association, which was founded in 1949 as a non-political and non-governmental organization. APWA’s main aim is to secure the moral, social, and economic welfare of women and children in Pakistan. APWA has established various institutions and projects, such as schools, colleges, hospitals, vocational centers, and legal aid cells, to provide education, health, employment, and legal services to women and children². WAF stands for Women’s Action Forum, which was formed in 1981 as a network of women’s groups and activists. WAF’s main aim is to resist the oppression and discrimination of women in Pakistan, especially under the military dictatorship and the Islamization policies. WAF has organized various campaigns and protests, such as against the Hudood Ordinances, the Qisas and Diyat laws, and the Zina Ordinance, to challenge the laws and policies that violate women’s rights and dignity³.

© Government Initiative for combating the menace of violence against women in Pakistan is a broad term that refers to the various laws, policies, and programs that the government of Pakistan has adopted and implemented to prevent and respond to violence against women and girls. Some examples of these initiatives are:

• The National Commission on the Status of Women, which was established in 2000 as an independent statutory body to monitor and review the laws and policies that affect women’s rights and status, and to recommend measures to eliminate discrimination and violence against women⁴.
• The Protection of Women (Criminal Laws Amendment) Act, 2006, amended the Hudood Ordinances and the Pakistan Penal Code, removed the offenses of rape and adultery from Islamic law, and made them punishable under secular law. The Act also provided for the right of bail and the right of appeal for women accused of adultery, and increased the punishment for rape and honour killings⁵.
• The Prevention of Anti-Women Practices (Criminal Law Amendment) Act, 2011, which criminalized the practices of forced marriage, marriage with the Quran, and depriving women of inheritance, and prescribed imprisonment and fine for the offenders⁵.
• The Domestic Violence (Prevention and Protection) Act, 2012, which defined domestic violence as a punishable offence, and provided for the protection, relief, and compensation of the victims, and the establishment of protection committees and protection officers to assist the victims⁵.
• The National Plan of Action on Human Rights, 2016, which included a specific chapter on women’s rights, and outlined the objectives, strategies, and actions to address the issues of violence against women, such as awareness raising, capacity building, service provision, legal reform, and data collection⁶.