Water Scarcity in Pakistan’s Major Cities 2025: Karachi, Lahore, Quetta, and Islamabad

Practices

Residents of Karachi face significant challenges in managing their daily water needs due to chronic shortages, inefficient distribution, and reliance on alternative sources. Here’s how they cope with the crisis:

• Reliance on Water Tankers: Many households depend on private water tankers to meet their daily needs. These tankers, which draw water from both legal and illegal hydrants, are expensive, costing between $12 and $18 for 1,000 gallons. Low-income families often struggle to afford this, forcing them to ration water for essential activities like drinking and cooking12.

Use of Bore Wells: Some residents install motorized bore wells to access groundwater. However, the water extracted is often salty and unfit for drinking or cooking. It is primarily used for cleaning and washing purposes. Installing a bore well can cost up to $800, making it an option only for those who can afford it1.

• Rationing Water: Due to limited access, many families ration their water usage. For instance, some households bathe only twice a week or delay washing clothes to conserve water. This compromises hygiene and quality of life, particularly in densely populated areas like Orangi and Baldia Town12.
• Coping with Contaminated Water: In areas where piped water is available, it is often contaminated due to leakages and the mixing of sewage with drinking water pipelines. Residents are forced to boil or filter water at home to make it safe for consumption, adding to their daily burdens35.
• Community Solutions: In some neighbourhoods, residents pool resources to collectively purchase tankers or install shared bore wells. These community-driven initiatives help mitigate costs but are not a sustainable solution for the city’s growing population17.
• Seasonal Challenges: During summer or festive periods like Eid-ul-Fitr, the demand for water spikes, worsening shortages. Residents often face delays in tanker deliveries or price hikes due to increased demand8.

Karachi’s residents manage their daily water needs through a mix of costly alternatives and stringent rationing. However, these stopgap measures highlight the urgent need for systemic reforms in the city’s water supply infrastructure and governance.

The use of salty groundwater in Karachi poses significant health risks

• Kidney Problems: High levels of salt, particularly sodium chloride, can strain the kidneys. Prolonged consumption of such water may lead to kidney dysfunction or failure over time3.
• Fluorosis and Skeletal Issues: Some areas in Karachi have elevated fluoride levels in groundwater, which can cause fluorosis—a condition leading to dental and skeletal deformities. High fluoride intake can result in stiffness, rheumatism, and crippling skeletal rigidity1.
• Methemoglobinemia and Birth Defects: The presence of high nitrate levels (NO3-N) in groundwater can cause methemoglobinemia, a condition where the blood’s ability to carry oxygen is impaired. This can also lead to birth defects if consumed by pregnant women1.
• Cancer Risks: Groundwater in Karachi may contain carcinogenic elements like arsenic, chromium, and mercury, particularly near industrial sites such as tanneries. These contaminants increase the risk of cancer among those consuming untreated groundwater3.
•  Gastrointestinal Diseases: Contamination with coliform bacteria and other pathogens can lead to gastrointestinal diseases such as diarrhoea and dysentery. Consuming inadequately sanitized water poses major health risks, contributing to about 80% of diseases in developing countries6.
• Bone and Joint Problems in Children: Children exposed to contaminated groundwater may develop bone and joint issues, affecting their mobility and overall health3.

The health impacts of using salty and contaminated groundwater in Karachi are severe and widespread. It is crucial to implement effective water purification systems and regulate groundwater extraction to mitigate these risks. Public awareness campaigns and policy reforms are also necessary to ensure safe drinking water for all residents.

High chloride levels in Karachi’s groundwater

High chloride levels in Karachi’s groundwater are not directly linked to specific diseases but can contribute to overall health issues due to the unpleasant taste and potential gastrointestinal discomfort. However, the broader context of groundwater contamination in Karachi includes a range of health risks associated with other contaminants:

Chloride Levels: While high chloride concentrations primarily affect the taste and palatability of water, they can also indicate contamination from industrial or waste sources, which may carry other harmful substances12.

Associated Health Risks: The presence of high chloride levels often accompanies other contaminants such as nitrates, sulfates, and heavy metals. These contaminants can lead to serious health issues:

• • Nitrates (NO3-N): High levels can cause methemoglobinemia and birth defects1.

  • Fluoride: Excessive consumption can lead to fluorosis, affecting dental and skeletal health1.

  • Heavy Metals and Pathogens: Contamination with heavy metals and pathogens like E. coli can cause gastrointestinal diseases, including diarrhoea and gastroenteritis347.

• General Health Impacts: The overall poor quality of groundwater in Karachi increases the risk of waterborne diseases such as typhoid, cholera, and gastroenteritis47. These conditions are exacerbated by the lack of proper treatment and sanitation facilities.

In summary, while high chloride levels themselves are not directly linked to specific diseases, they are part of a broader water quality issue in Karachi that poses significant health risks due to associated contaminants.

High chloride levels in groundwater significantly disrupt local ecosystems by affecting both aquatic and terrestrial organisms. Here’s how elevated chloride concentrations impact ecological balance:

Aquatic Life Disruption

• Osmoregulation Failure: High chloride interferes with aquatic organisms’ ability to regulate salt levels in their bodies, leading to physiological stress. This impairs survival, growth, and reproduction in fish, amphibians, and invertebrates73.

• Biodiversity Loss: Chronic exposure reduces species diversity. For example, chloride concentrations above 230 mg/L (chronic standard) and 860 mg/L (acute standard) can decimate sensitive species, leaving only salt-tolerant organisms63.

• Reproductive Harm: Elevated chloride levels disrupt spawning and larval development in fish, while amphibians like frogs experience higher mortality rates in high-salinity waters45.

Soil and Plant Health

• Soil Salinization: Chloride-laden groundwater used for irrigation causes soil salt accumulation, hindering plant growth and reducing crop yields. Saline soils also corrode infrastructure like irrigation systems17.

• Plant Respiration Stress: Chloride infiltration into root zones inhibits water uptake, leading to stunted growth in freshwater-dependent vegetation47.

Water Quality Degradation

• Groundwater Contamination: Chloride from road salt, wastewater, and agricultural runoff infiltrates aquifers. In coastal areas, over-pumping accelerates seawater intrusion, raising chloride levels to 19,000 mg/L (similar to ocean water)78.

• Surface Water Pollution: Urban streams near high-density development often exceed safe chloride thresholds, harming aquatic ecosystems. For example, 40% of tested urban streams in the northern U.S. surpassed aquatic life criteria35.

 Human Activity Linkages

• Road Salt: Deicing salts contribute up to 88 tons of chloride per square mile annually in urban basins, contaminating groundwater and streams25.

• Wastewater and Agriculture: Improperly treated sewage and fertilizers introduce chloride into water systems. In Minnesota, household water softeners alone added significant chloride to the Pomme de Terre River47.

Mitigation Strategies

• Reduce Road Salt Use: Adopt alternative deicers like beet juice blends or improve snow-removal efficiency58.

• Upgrade Wastewater Treatment: Implement chloride-removal technologies in sewage plants46.

• Monitor Coastal Wells: Track chloride spikes to prevent seawater intrusion in vulnerable aquifers7.

Elevated chloride concentrations create cascading ecological effects, emphasizing the need for sustainable water management to protect biodiversity and soil health.

Water scarcity in Lahore significantly influences the overall quality of life, affecting health, economic stability, and social well-being. Here’s an overview of its impacts:

Health Impacts

• Access to Unsafe Water: Many residents rely on groundwater, which is increasingly contaminated due to pollutants entering the aquifer from untreated wastewater in the River Ravi. This leads to waterborne diseases like diarrhea, cholera, and typhoid, particularly in low-income areas12.

• Hygiene Challenges: Limited water availability hampers basic hygiene practices, increasing the risk of infections and diseases3.

Economic Strain

• Rising Costs: Households face higher expenses for accessing clean water through tankers or bottled water. Additionally, the cost of drilling deeper wells due to falling groundwater levels adds financial pressure12.

• Medical Expenses: Illnesses caused by contaminated water lead to increased healthcare costs for families4.

Social and Psychological Stress

• Time and Effort: Residents in underserved areas spend significant time fetching water or managing limited supplies, reducing time for other productive activities2.

• Mental Health Issues: The stress of securing adequate water for daily needs contributes to anxiety and reduced mental well-being3.

Environmental Degradation

• Declining Groundwater Levels: The aquifer beneath Lahore is depleting rapidly, with water tables dropping 4–5 feet annually. This unsustainable extraction threatens long-term water security for the city12.

Impact on Urban Development

• Infrastructure Challenges: Aging and inefficient water distribution systems result in wastage through leaks and theft, exacerbating shortages. Poor urban planning further strains resources as the city expands without adequate water management systems12.

Water scarcity in Lahore deeply affects daily life by compromising health, increasing economic burdens, and creating social stress. Addressing these challenges requires urgent investment in sustainable water management practices, infrastructure upgrades, and public awareness campaigns to conserve this vital resource.

Water scarcity in Lahore significantly impacts the health and well-being of its residents, primarily due to the prevalence of contaminated water sources and inadequate sanitation facilities. Here are some key effects:

Waterborne Diseases

• Common Health Issues: Waterborne diseases such as typhoid, hepatitis A, and diarrhea are widespread due to contaminated water sources. Approximately 30-40% of Lahore’s population is affected by these diseases1.

• Pathogens in Water: Drinking water often contains harmful pathogens like E. coli, Giardia lamblia, and Salmonella, leading to frequent outbreaks of cholera, dysentery, and gastroenteritis2.

Health Impacts on Vulnerable Populations

• Children and Infants: Diarrhea is a major cause of death among children under five in Pakistan, with contaminated water being a primary risk factor2.

• Maternal Health: Poor water quality and sanitation contribute to maternal health issues, including infections and complications during childbirth5.

Mental Health and Stress

• Psychological Burden: The stress of managing water scarcity can lead to increased anxiety and mental health issues among residents, exacerbated by the broader social and economic challenges faced by the city1.

Environmental Health

• Air and Water Pollution: Lahore’s environmental degradation, including poor air quality and contaminated water, further exacerbates health problems. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and respiratory infections are common due to air pollution1.

• Groundwater Depletion: The rapid decline in groundwater levels threatens long-term water security and increases the risk of waterborne diseases as the remaining water becomes more concentrated with contaminants45.

Water scarcity in Lahore poses significant health risks, primarily through the spread of waterborne diseases and environmental degradation. Addressing these challenges requires urgent improvements in water management, sanitation infrastructure, and public health initiatives to protect the well-being of residents.

Ensuring access to safe drinking water in Lahore requires a combination of individual actions and community efforts. Here are some measures individuals can take:

Use Water Filtration Systems

• Home Filtration: Install home water filtration systems to remove contaminants like bacteria, viruses, and heavy metals. Options include activated carbon filters, reverse osmosis systems, or UV purifiers.

• Regular Maintenance: Regularly maintain and replace filters to ensure effectiveness.

Promote Community Participation

• Engage with Local Authorities: Encourage community involvement in water management by engaging with local water authorities like Lahore WASA. This can help identify and address local water issues more effectively.

• Support Community Projects: Participate in or support community-based initiatives that aim to improve water supply and sanitation services.

Conserve Water

• Reduce Consumption: Implement water-saving practices at home, such as using low-flow fixtures and fixing leaks promptly.

• Rainwater Harvesting: Consider installing rainwater harvesting systems to collect and store rainwater for non-potable uses like cleaning and gardening.

Advocate for Policy Change

• Support Water Policies: Advocate for policies that prioritize safe drinking water access, such as the Punjab Drinking Water Policy.

• Raise Awareness: Educate friends and family about the importance of safe drinking water and the need for sustainable water management practices.

Monitor Water Quality

• Regular Testing: Periodically test your drinking water for contaminants to ensure it meets safety standards.

• Report Issues: If water quality issues are identified, report them to local authorities to ensure prompt action.

Support Public Health Initiatives

• Hygiene Practices: Promote good hygiene practices, such as washing hands regularly, to reduce the spread of waterborne diseases.

• Health Education: Participate in or support public health campaigns that focus on waterborne disease prevention.

By taking these steps, individuals can contribute to improving access to safe drinking water in Lahore and enhancing overall community health.

To address water scarcity in Lahore, the government can implement several measures across different sectors:

Improve Water Infrastructure and Management

• Upgrade Distribution Systems: Enhance the efficiency of water distribution networks by reducing leakages and theft. This can be achieved through modernizing infrastructure and implementing smart water management systems5.

• Build New Storage Facilities: Construct new dams and reservoirs to store excess water from rainfall and snowmelt, ensuring a steady supply during dry periods3.

Promote Water Conservation

• Implement Efficient Irrigation Systems: Encourage the use of drip and sprinkler irrigation systems in agriculture to reduce water waste and increase crop yields per unit of water used6.

• Public Awareness Campaigns: Launch public education campaigns to raise awareness about water conservation practices among households and industries1.

Enhance Water Quality Management

• Install Wastewater Treatment Plants: Collaborate with private entities to establish more wastewater treatment plants, enabling the reuse of treated water for non-potable purposes like irrigation and cleaning4.

• Segregate Sewage Lines: Ensure that sewage lines are separated from drinking water supply lines to prevent contamination7.

Implement Water Pricing and Regulation

• Adequate Water Pricing: Introduce realistic water pricing mechanisms, such as volumetric pricing, to encourage efficient use of water in both agricultural and industrial sectors2.

• Regulate Groundwater Extraction: Enforce strict regulations on groundwater extraction to prevent over-extraction and ensure sustainable aquifer management2.

Foster Public-Private Partnerships

• Collaborative Projects: Engage in public-private partnerships to fund and implement water conservation projects, such as rainwater harvesting systems and desalination plants34.

Develop and Implement Comprehensive Policies

• National Water Policy: Strengthen and implement a comprehensive national water policy that addresses water scarcity, conservation, and management issues across all sectors8.

• Provincial Regulations: Support provincial governments in enforcing water-related legislation and ensuring effective implementation of water conservation plans4.

By implementing these measures, the government can effectively address water scarcity in Lahore, ensuring sustainable water management and improving the quality of life for its residents.

Comparison

Quetta’s crisis is driven by unsustainable groundwater extraction and droughts, threatening its long-term habitability. Islamabad faces supply shortages and contamination challenges that impact public health. Both cities require urgent interventions tailored to their specific needs—Quetta needs strict groundwater regulation and replenishment strategies, while Islamabad requires infrastructure upgrades and improved water quality management.

Addressing Quetta’s water crisis requires a multifaceted approach that includes both short-term and long-term strategies. Here are some potential solutions:

Rainwater Harvesting

• Potential: Quetta has an estimated annual rainwater harvesting capacity of about 4 billion litres, which can significantly augment the city’s water supply1.

• Implementation: Install rainwater harvesting systems in public buildings and residential areas to collect and store rainwater for non-potable uses.

Groundwater Recharge

• Techniques: Construct recharge ponds and artificial recharge structures to utilize Quetta’s average annual runoff of 570 million cubic meters to replenish depleted groundwater1.

• Benefits: This can help stabilize the falling water table and ensure sustainable groundwater use.

Infrastructure Development

• Improvements: Upgrade and expand the existing water supply infrastructure to reduce leakages and enhance efficiency. The Quetta Water and Sanitation Authority reports significant water losses due to leakages1.

• Benefits: Improved infrastructure can lead to significant water conservation and better service delivery.

Dams and Surface Water Projects

• Proposed Dams: Building dams like Babarkach, Burjaziz, Halq, and Mangi can provide up to 61 million gallons per day, addressing the water shortage until 20352.

• Kacchi Canal Project: Pumping water from the Kacchi Canal to Quetta through a proposed pipeline can provide a reliable surface water source, though it is costly and complex2.

Public Awareness and Education

• Campaigns: Educate the public about water-saving practices and the importance of conservation. A UNDP survey found that about 50% of Quetta’s population is unaware of their impact on the water crisis1.

• Benefits: Raising awareness can lead to reduced water consumption and support for sustainable water management practices.

Plantation Drives

• Tree Planting: Regular tree planting can help increase rainfall and recharge groundwater over time, though this is a long-term solution4.

• Benefits: This approach also helps mitigate climate change impacts by reducing soil erosion and improving local ecosystems.

Population Management

• Decentralization: Reduce population pressure on Quetta by developing other towns into cities in different districts, thus distributing the water demand more evenly2.

• Benefits: This strategy can alleviate some of the strain on Quetta’s resources and infrastructure.

•  Water Pricing and Regulation

• Water Charges: Implement water pricing to encourage conservation and generate revenue for water utilities. This can also help fund infrastructure improvements4.

• Regulations: Enforce strict regulations against illegal water extraction and promote sustainable use practices4.

By implementing these solutions, Quetta can move towards a more sustainable water management system and mitigate its severe water crisis.

Policy reforms can play a crucial role in managing Quetta’s water resources sustainably by addressing key challenges such as groundwater depletion, inefficient use, and lack of regulation. Here are some ways policy reforms can help:

Groundwater Regulation

• Establishment of a Groundwater Authority: Implement a regulatory body to monitor and control groundwater extraction, ensuring that it is done sustainably and equitably. This can prevent over-extraction and illegal tube wells, which exacerbate water scarcity4.

• Enforcement of Groundwater Extraction Limits: Set and enforce limits on groundwater extraction to prevent depletion and ensure aquifer recharge3.

 Water Pricing and Conservation

• Water Pricing Mechanisms: Introduce water pricing to encourage conservation. This can include volumetric pricing for both agricultural and domestic use, helping to reduce waste and promote efficient use3.

• Public Awareness Campaigns: Use policy to support public awareness campaigns that educate residents about the importance of water conservation and efficient use practices2.

 Integration with National Policies

• Alignment with National Water Policy (NWP): Ensure that local policies align with the NWP (2018) to leverage national support and resources for sustainable water management1.

• Adoption of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM): Implement IWRM principles to manage water resources holistically, considering social, economic, and environmental aspects1.

 Encouraging Public-Private Partnerships

• Collaborative Projects: Foster public-private partnerships to fund and implement water conservation projects, such as rainwater harvesting systems and efficient irrigation technologies2.

 Decentralization and Community Engagement

• Empower Local Communities: Decentralize water management by empowering local communities to take an active role in decision-making processes. This can lead to more effective and sustainable management of local water resources1.

• Gender Mainstreaming: Ensure that policies incorporate gender perspectives to address the specific needs and roles of women in water management1.

Climate Change Adaptation

• Adaptive Management: Incorporate climate change resilience into policy frameworks by promoting adaptive management practices that can respond to changing environmental conditions1.

By implementing these policy reforms, Quetta can move towards more sustainable water management, reducing the strain on its water resources and improving the quality of life for its residents.

Groundwater recharge techniques offer numerous benefits for addressing Quetta’s severe water crisis. These methods can help mitigate groundwater depletion, improve water availability, and reduce associated environmental and socio-economic challenges. Here are the key benefits:

 Stabilizing Groundwater Levels

• Recharge techniques such as constructing recharge ponds, check dams and infiltration wells can replenish aquifers in Quetta’s Valley, where groundwater levels have been dropping by 1.5 to 5 meters annually in densely populated areas1.

• By restoring the balance between extraction and replenishment, these methods can slow or halt the alarming rate of groundwater depletion.

Mitigating Land Subsidence

• Excessive groundwater extraction has caused land subsidence in Quetta, with rates as high as 120 mm per year in central areas1. Recharge techniques can help maintain hydrostatic pressure in aquifers, reducing the risk of land subsidence and preventing damage to infrastructure.

Improving Water Quality

• As groundwater levels decline, salinity and contamination increase, degrading water quality. Recharge methods dilute pollutants in aquifers by introducing cleaner surface water, improving the overall quality of available groundwater.

 Enhancing Agricultural Productivity

• Agriculture in Quetta heavily depends on groundwater for irrigation. Recharge techniques ensure a more reliable water supply for farming, supporting food security and rural livelihoods.

Supporting Ecosystem Health

• Recharging aquifers helps maintain the natural flow of springs and wetlands, which are vital for local biodiversity. This contributes to ecological balance and supports wildlife dependent on these water sources.

Long-Term Water Security

• Recharge techniques provide a sustainable solution to Quetta’s water scarcity by ensuring that aquifers remain a viable source of water for future generations.

Cost-Effectiveness

• Compared to large-scale infrastructure projects like dams or pipelines, recharge techniques are often more cost-effective and easier to implement locally.

 Climate Resilience

• With Quetta experiencing recurring droughts, recharge methods capture and store rainwater during wet periods for use during dry spells1. This enhances the city’s resilience to climate variability.

By integrating groundwater recharge techniques into its water management strategy, Quetta can address its critical water scarcity issues while ensuring long-term sustainability and reducing environmental risks like land subsidence.

Public awareness campaigns can play a crucial role in addressing Quetta’s water crisis by educating residents about the severity of the issue and promoting sustainable water management practices. Here are some ways these campaigns can contribute:

 Raising Awareness

• Educating the Public: Campaigns can inform residents about the causes of water scarcity, such as climate change, over-extraction of groundwater, and inefficient use of water resources. This awareness can motivate individuals to take action.

• Highlighting Consequences: By highlighting the health risks and economic impacts of water scarcity, campaigns can emphasize the urgency of the situation and encourage behavioral change.

Promoting Water Conservation

• Conservation Practices: Public awareness campaigns can promote simple yet effective water-saving practices, such as fixing leaks, using low-flow fixtures, and reducing water usage in agriculture.

• Behavioural Change: Encouraging residents to adopt water-efficient habits can significantly reduce overall consumption, alleviating some pressure on the city’s water resources.

Supporting Policy Reforms

• Public Support for Reforms: Awareness campaigns can build public support for policy reforms aimed at sustainable water management, such as groundwater regulation and efficient irrigation systems.

• Advocacy for Infrastructure Upgrades: By highlighting the need for improved infrastructure, campaigns can push for investments in water supply systems and wastewater treatment facilities.

Community Engagement

• Community-Led Initiatives: Campaigns can mobilize communities to participate in water conservation efforts, such as rainwater harvesting and community-based water management projects.

• Stakeholder Engagement: Engaging with local stakeholders, including farmers, businesses, and government agencies, can foster collaboration and ensure that solutions are tailored to local needs.

Long-Term Impact

• Sustainability: Public awareness campaigns can have a long-term impact by embedding water conservation as a cultural norm in Quetta, ensuring that future generations prioritize sustainable water use.

By leveraging public awareness campaigns, Quetta can build a strong foundation for addressing its water crisis through community-driven initiatives and sustainable practices.

Schools and educational institutions in Quetta can play a pivotal role in promoting water conservation and addressing the city’s water crisis. Here’s how they can contribute effectively:

 Incorporating Water Conservation into the Curriculum

• Environmental Education: Schools can integrate water conservation topics into science, geography, and environmental studies curricula to teach students about sustainable water practices.

• Interdisciplinary Approach: Link water conservation with broader sustainability issues like energy efficiency and waste management, helping students understand the interconnectedness of environmental challenges1.

Implementing Practical Conservation Measures

• Rainwater Harvesting Systems: Install rainwater harvesting systems to collect and store rainwater for non-potable uses like irrigation, toilet flushing, and cleaning. This reduces dependence on groundwater and provides hands-on learning opportunities for students1.

• Efficient Plumbing Solutions: Replace traditional faucets and toilets with low-flow or dual-flush models to reduce water usage significantly. Regular maintenance of plumbing systems can prevent wastage through leaks12.

 Promoting Student Engagement

• Water Audits: Involve students in conducting water audits to identify areas where their school can reduce water usage. This empowers them to take ownership of conservation efforts1.

• Campaigns and Events: Organize events like science fairs or awareness campaigns where students design posters, presentations, or projects focused on water conservation1.

Creating a Culture of Conservation

• Community Outreach: Extend awareness campaigns beyond schools by involving parents and local communities. Schools can act as hubs for spreading knowledge about sustainable practices1.

• Role Models: Schools that successfully implement conservation measures can serve as examples for other institutions in Quetta to emulate1.

 Long-Term Impacts

• Behavioural Change: By instilling a sense of responsibility toward water conservation at an early age, schools can shape lifelong habits in students, who will carry these practices into adulthood and influence their families and communities12.

• Sustainability Leadership: Educated students are more likely to advocate for sustainable policies and practices, contributing to long-term solutions for Quetta’s water crisis2.

Conclusion

Through education, practical measures, and community engagement, schools in Quetta can become champions of water conservation. Their efforts not only address immediate challenges but also foster a culture of sustainability that benefits future generations.